Class 12 Sociology · Chapter 5 NotesPatterns of Social Inequality and Exclusion

Social inequality and exclusion are 'social' in three ways: they are about groups, not individuals; they are not purely economic, though linked to economic inequality; and they are systematic and structured. Social inequality refers to unequal access to valued resources like money, education, health, and power. These resources can be seen as three forms of capital: economic, cultural, and social. Social stratification is a system that ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, shaping their life chances. It is a society-wide system, persists over generations, and is supported by beliefs or ideologies that justify it. Prejudice refers to preconceived opinions about a group, often based on stereotypes—fixed, inflexible characterisations. Discrimination, on the other hand, is actual behaviour that disqualifies members of a group from opportunities. Social exclusion means being cut off from full involvement in society, not just economically but also in access to services and rights.

• Economic capitalmaterial assets and income
• Cultural capitaleducational qualifications and status
• Social capitalnetworks of contacts and associations
• Prejudicepre-conceived opinions, often negative, resistant to change
• Stereotypesfixed, inflexible characterisations of a group
• Discriminationactual behaviour that excludes or disadvantages

The caste system is a distinct Indian social institution that legitimises and enforces discrimination based on birth. Historically, caste determined occupation and social status, with a close correlation between caste and economic status. While the link between caste and occupation has weakened in modern times, the caste-class correlation remains stable at the macro level: privileged sections tend to be upper caste, while disadvantaged sections are dominated by lower castes. Untouchability is an extreme aspect of caste, prescribing severe social sanctions against those at the bottom of the purity-pollution scale. It involves exclusion, humiliation-subordination, and exploitation. Dalits, the ex-untouchable castes, have been subjected to unique forms of exclusion, such as prohibition from sharing water sources or participating in religious ceremonies. The term 'Dalit' means 'downtrodden' and reflects the struggle for rights and dignity.

• Caste systemlegitimises discrimination based on birth
• Untouchabilityextreme form of caste discrimination
• Dalitliterally 'downtrodden', term of self-assertion

The Indian state has implemented special programmes for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) since before Independence, with the 'Schedules' drawn up in 1935. After Independence, these policies continued and expanded to include Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in the 1990s. The most important initiative is 'reservations'—setting aside seats in legislatures, government jobs, and educational institutions for SCs and STs, proportional to their population share. For OBCs, the proportion is decided differently. Laws have also been passed to prohibit caste discrimination, such as the Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850, the Constitution of India (1950) which abolished untouchability (Article 17), and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989. The 93rd Amendment (2005) introduced reservation for OBCs in higher education. However, legislation alone cannot end social practices; social awareness and campaigns are also needed. Dalits have also organised politically and culturally, with movements led by figures like Jyotiba Phule, Periyar, and Ambedkar, and contemporary parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party.

• Reservationsseats in legislatures, jobs, and educational institutions
• Article 17abolishes untouchability
• Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989punishes violence against Dalits and adivasis
• 93rd Amendment, 2005reservation for OBCs in higher education

The OBCs are castes of low status that faced discrimination short of untouchability. The Constitution recognises 'socially and educationally backward classes', which became popularly known as OBCs. They are defined negatively—neither forward castes nor Dalits. The first Backward Classes Commission (Kalelkar Commission) submitted its report in 1953, but it was sidelined. The Second Backward Classes Commission (Mandal Commission) was appointed in the late 1970s, and its report was implemented in 1990, making the OBC issue a major national political topic. OBCs are about 41% of the national population. They are diverse, with upper OBCs (landed castes) and lower OBCs (very poor, often similar to Dalits). They are under-represented in most spheres except landholding and political representation.

• OBCssocially and educationally backward classes
• Kalelkar Commission (1953), Mandal Commission (1980)
• Mandal Commission report implemented in 1990

Adivasis, or Scheduled Tribes, are recognised by the Constitution. They were historically 'people of the forest', but ecological isolation was never absolute. Since the nineteenth century, non-tribals moved into tribal areas, and adivasis migrated to plantations, mines, and factories. Colonial forest policies reserved forests for timber, denying adivasis access to forests and land, forcing them into wage labour or illegal use of forests. After Independence, capital-intensive industrialisation led to mining and dam projects that displaced millions of adivasis without proper compensation. This has been called internal colonialism. The term 'Adivasi' means 'original inhabitants' and connotes political awareness. Adivasi movements have achieved statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Unlike Dalits, adivasis were concentrated in contiguous areas, enabling demands for separate states.

• Adivasioriginal inhabitants, term coined in 1930s
• Displacement due to mining and dam projects
• Achievementsstatehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh

Gender inequality is often seen as natural, but it is social. There are no biological reasons for women's exclusion from public power or property. Matrilineal societies like the Nairs of Kerala and Khasis of Meghalaya show that women can be inheritors and heads of families. The women's question arose in nineteenth-century social reform movements. Reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy (anti-sati), M.G. Ranade (widow remarriage), Jyotiba Phule (caste and gender), and Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (women's education) drew on both Western ideas and Indian traditions. Women also wrote and organised: Tarabai Shinde's Stree Purush Tulana (1882) and Begum Rokeya's Sultana's Dream (1905) challenged patriarchy. The Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress (1931) committed to women's equality. In the 1970s, women's issues re-emerged focusing on modern issues like media representation and unequal development. New challenges include declining child sex ratio.

• Matrilineal societiesNairs, Khasis
• ReformersRammohun Roy, Ranade, Phule, Syed Ahmed Khan
• Karachi Session 1931commitment to women's equality

Disability is not just a physical or mental impairment; it is socially constructed. Society is built in ways that do not cater to the needs of the disabled, rendering them disabled. The term 'disabled' challenges assumptions that disability is a biological given or a personal tragedy. The disabled are often seen as victims, and disability is linked to past karma. However, the disabled themselves have struggled for recognition and rights. Poverty and disability are closely linked: malnutrition, inadequate healthcare, and accidents in overcrowded homes increase disability among the poor, and disability exacerbates poverty. The Census 2011 collected information on eight types of disabilities. The rights of the disabled have been recognised only recently, and efforts to redress the situation have come from the disabled themselves.

• Disabilitysocial construction, not just biological
• Link between disability and poverty
• Census 2011eight types of disabilities